Konark Temple: A Soul’s Symbolic Journey

 

Sharing a free ebook, "Konark Temple: A Soul’s Symbolic Journey". This book is my humble tribute to the Supreme Sun on Makara Sankranthi:

I am sharing a free book with everyone about the Konark Temple. The book is titled "Konark Temple: A Soul’s Symbolic Journey. A copy of the book can be downloaded from https://archive.org/details/konark-a-souls-symbolic-journey

This is a concise ebook that analyses the symbolism of the Konark Sun Temple, rendering the temple a visual representation of the Upanishads. This article is written from my perspective. The article also focuses on Kalingan Style architecture and the construction methods employed from an engineering perspective.

The article also examines possible reasons that led to the temple's collapse.

Historical Background:

The age of the temple, after much archaeological debate, was assigned to the period of King Narasimhadeva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty, i.e the temple was said to have been constructed in the 13th century. However, Abul Fazl in his work Ain-i-Akbari assigns the date when this temple was completed to 850 AD, 873 AD.

The word Konark is a compound word from Kona + Arka. Kona means angle, and Arka means fire or sun. The word Konarka could refer to the entry of the Sun into the constellation Aquarius, known as Agni-Kona, which is celebrated as Ratha Sapthami.

According to historical sources, the Konark Temple was constructed by King Gajapati Narasingha Deva I of the Imperial Ganga Dynasty. This king ruled from (c. 1238–1264). The Imperial Ganga Dynasty was first established by King Anaṅgabhīma in the year c. 1230. There are two King Anakabhīmas listed under the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. King Anakabhīma II, who ruled from c. 1190–1198 and King Anakabhīma III of the Imperial Ganga Dynasty, who ruled from c. 1211–1238. The time period from c.1190 to c. 1245 coincides with that of the Poet Sri Jayadeva, who composed the famous Gita Govindam for Lord Jagannatha. According to Wikipedia, The Poet Sri Jayadeva lived from c.1170 to c. 1245. The king of that period decreed that Gita Govindam should be sung daily in the Jagannath Temple.

One of the earlier Eastern Ganga kings, King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva, was possibly a follower of Swami Ramanujacharya, and the king assumed the titles of Paramavaishnava and Paramamahesvara.

King Anaṅgabhīma of the Imperial Ganga Dynasty dedicated his kingdom to Lord Jagannatha at Puri. He is said to have acknowledged the divinity of Puri both as the sole state deity of Odisha and as his divine overlord. Anaṅgabhīma and his successors declared that they were carrying out the divine order (adesha) of Lord Jagannatha. They called themselves the Son of Lord Jagannatha or the vassal of Lord Jagannatha.

King Gajapati Narasimha Deva was described as Purushottama-Putra in the Ganga copper plate grants. It can be safely assumed that, as Purushottama-Putra, the King conceived Lord Vishnu as the Sun-God at Konark, thus making a connection to Lord Surya Narayana. There is a stone carving of the king worshipping Lord Jagannatha at Konark.

Oriya literature also confirms the connection of Lord Surya Narayana with Konark. The 15th-century poet Sri Sarala Dasa mentioned in his Mahabarata that Lord Surya Narayana killed the Asura named Arka at Agni-Kona of Jambudwipa. As the Asura was killed at Agni-Kona, the place became Konarka Kshetra. Sri Sarala Dasa composed the Mahabarata from the perspective of a bagawatha (devotee). This composition brings out Lord Krishna as the Supreme Controller.

The ancient Sun Temple at Konarka was constructed in the 13th century for the worship of Lord Surya-Narayana.

In ancient times, Kings built temples on a grand scale. The temples were meant to be the pictorial representation of religious literature. From this perspective, it is my opinion that the Konark Temple was conceived as a pictorial representation of the Upanishads.

Wishing everyone a Happy Sankranthi!

Rock Cut Monuments - Engineering Perspective

 

INTRODUCTION:

With over fifteen hundred rock-cut caves and temples in India, I have been interested in finding peer-reviewed articles on the geotechnical aspects and structural engineering techniques used to develop these massive and impressive structures. I was not successful in locating peer-reviewed material that discusses in detail the engineering and construction methods used to carve out these grand monuments; however, I found information on the design of underground caverns. From a study of these journals, I could understand the complexity of designing structures like the Kailash temple at Ellora and the Ajanta caves. The design of these monuments required the application of complex engineering principles.

STUDY OF ROCK FORMATION

In the modern era, the excavation of underground structures like caverns and tunnels begins with the study of the type of rock formation. The formations are classified into two main types.

1. WEAK FORMATIONS. These are the formations of shale, clay, limestone, etc. Weak formations are prone to crumbling. The Badami Caves are an example of weak formation, as these are sandstone structures.

2. HEAVILY JOINTED FORMATION OR HARD ROCK FORMATION. Granite, diorite, and basalt are examples of heavily jointed formations. Natural hard rock cliffs and formations have numerous cracks and discontinuities that break into many smaller blocks. The types of failures experienced in hard rock formations are gravity-controlled falling, sliding of blocks and collapse of rock columns. Mahabalipuram has granite structures, while Ajanta and Ellora caves are carved out of basalt rock.

TYPES OF FAILURES IN ROCK EXCAVATION:

Any underground excavation faces problems from failures in roofs and walls, from the collapse or crumbling of either the roof or the wall. Modern underground cavern design involves complex engineering calculations that primarily rely on geotechnical data, rock mechanics principles, and numerical modelling to ensure stability and safety. Key calculations include assessing in situ stresses, determining rock mass strength, predicting failure modes, and designing support systems. 

The stability of the excavation depends on the strength of the rock mass that surrounds the excavation.  Stress induced in the structure being excavated is a function of the excavation shape and the in-situ stress that existed before excavation. The strength of the rock formation is often not uniform and varies.

ANCIENT SANSKRIT TEXTS ON BUILDING PLANNING & CONSTRUCTION

In ancient times, Sanskrit treatises like the Silpa Shastra, the Vastu shastra, the South Indian Agama text and texts like the Samarangana Sutradhara provided the calculations and methodology required to complete complex constructions, including rock-cut monuments. The documents discuss in detail the construction of towns, villages, public houses, residential areas and also deal with the construction of the temples. These documents provide instructions on how a building, such as a temple, must be developed from the blueprint phase to the final consecration phase. The documents also provide complicated geometrical calculations, units of ancient measurement and conversion from one unit of measurement to another.

 

THE ANCIENT ENGINEER

The master architect/engineer who developed the plans and oversaw the construction was called a Stapathi. The ancient treatises have dedicated chapters that discuss in detail the qualification of a Stapathi. The documents also mention that the Stapathi, who is engaged to oversee and plan the construction, must have sufficient practical experience. The Stapathi must be proficient in engineering, designing machines, carpentry, arithmetic, astronomy, geology, and astrology. The ancient texts have details about building machines that were used to manipulate / harness energy from the five elements. We normally assume that the massive stone structures were carved with the help of a hammer and a chisel, but the ancient documents specify the design of many machines that could be used to manipulate the construction material.

The design and construction of monuments like the Kailash Temple at Ellora were carried out by a team of professionals who were quite proficient in engineering and geotechnical sciences. The Samarangana Sutradhara, for example, discusses the study of the site, soil verification and testing before commencing construction. The site for the rock-cut temples and caves was carefully chosen and studied before construction could begin. These complex structures were definitely not built by primitive artisans who arbitrarily chose a location and started to chisel away at the rock. There was careful planning and study of the rock layer at every phase of the construction. The strength of jointed rock masses depends on the interlocking blocks that exist between individual pieces. Damage to the interlocking blocks during excavation results in instability. Hence, the construction could not have proceeded without studying the exposed structure at various phases.

KAILASH TEMPLE - ELLORA

For this article, I am focusing on the Kailash temple, a monolithic structure at Ellora. The basalt cliff is part of the Deccan plateau, which was formed by layers of volcanic lava. The cooling of lava created a network of interconnected fractures, cracks and columns in the basalt. Modern excavation uses rigorous structural monitoring and reinforcement. The ancient engineers from this time period also followed such procedures, as evidenced by the partially built vihara in cave 24 at Ajanta.

ANCIENT BLUEPRINT

The building of the Kailash temple started with a proper plan (blueprint). The Vastu Shastra texts define blueprint types that follow a grid system for planning the structure and the space within the temple. The method of making the blueprint is called padavinyasa system. Depending on the scale and complexity of the planned temple, the plan for the temple is drawn on an 8X8, 9X9 or 10X10 intricate grid. A detailed plan of the temple with ventilation holes, drains and arches on doorways was mapped on a grid-based plan, which allowed for designing a symmetrical layout.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN & SEISMIC RESILIENCE

The texts on constructing temple like the Vastu Shastra or the Samarangana Sutradhara, also classify the temples based on the type of spires; curvilinear shikara style, gopuram style, etc. The temple tower on the vertical axis was modelled after mountains like Mount Meru, Mount Mandhara, Mount Kailasha, etc. The number of storeys on the temple tower was based on the mountain model selected for the temple tower. The tapered pyramidal structure of the temple tower facilitates downward load transfer and minimises lateral thrust. The lateral thrust is the horizontal force generated by building elements like arches, walls, etc., that push outwards against their support or adjacent soil. For example, arches convert vertical loading into diagonal forces that exert horizontal thrust at their base. The stepped tiered structure of the tower minimised vertical loading. The temple has a low centre of gravity because of its tapered pyramidal structure with a wide base. This design, along with load-bearing components like beams that were carved out of the same monolithic rock, makes the temple exhibit inherent seismic resilience.

TOP-DOWN CONSTRUCTION METHOD

The construction team used a top-down approach.  At first, a narrow tunnel was drilled closer to the roof. From there, the team excavated downward and outward. The advantage of this method was that scaffolding was not needed.

At each layer, the team had to stop, study the strength of the rock and then either continue with their work or make in-situ modifications.  The Kailash temple has a network of staircases and interconnecting corridors. The load-bearing pillars and beams have been carved out of the rock. Taking into consideration the staircases and corridors, the top-down construction method with in-situ alterations to avoid faults in the rock was a very complicated process. When even a 2D drawing of this temple is difficult to create, imagine an intricately carved structure that was excavated one hundred feet into the hill. The design also incorporated ventilation systems, a drainage system for drainage of rainwater, and temperature control through passive cooling. There was no room for error. Even with in-situ modifications, the overall design with passageways, doors, staircases, vents and drains had to comply with the original plan. With free-standing structures, it is relatively easy to make corrections and alterations, whereas with carving a monolithic structure like the Kailash Temple, there is no room for error because the design is literally set in stone!

 

REFERENCES:

Methodological Elements of Indian Temples – Laxmi Singh

Practical Rock Engineering – Evert Hoek

Building Materials of the Hindu Temples Part II GRANITES and other ROCKS - Dr Uday Dokras, PhD, Sweden, Srishti Dokras, Architect

Temple engineering and seismic design in ancient Indian architecture: An inquiry into structural intelligence and earthquake resilience - Sikhasree Ray and Santigopal Jana

 

I Am Me - extended review

 Last weekend, I decided to read my brother Ram Sundaram's book “I Am Me” again. This book is a “flip book” that is a collection of ten pairs of short stories. The book is divided into two halves; once the reader reaches the middle, the book has to be flipped and the same set of ten short stories are repeated on the other side but, presented differently. One half focuses on reality and the other half on fantasy. The fantasy or the dreamscape represents the world as seen from the point of view of the individual nestled within the “atman” or the “collective” while the reality side represents the point of view of the collective or the “atman” within the individual. Whichever side a reader chooses to read the book from, it eventually meets in the middle, where one realises that the atman is within oneself while at the same time realising that one is but a part of the atman. 

Through this book, Ram has forged Western Symbolism with Eastern Philosophy. In the format of the book, we can sense hints of Daharavidhya. The collective inside the atman is taken from the Daharavidhya. In the city called Brahmapuram (Individual body), there is a palace which is like a lotus. Inside this palace is the small Akasam called “daharakasam”. The daharakasam is as large as the space on the outside. The daharakasam contains everything that is contained by the large akasam. It contains both the heaven and the Earth within it. It has both fire and air, both sun and moon, both lightning and stars; and whatever there is in the world, and whatever has been or will be, everything is contained within it. In other words, to the realised soul, the collective as represented by everything in this world, the Universe is within oneself; hence the realised soul doesn’t feel any deficiencies nor does it perceive any differences. 

The book's two sections can also be seen to silently explain the meaning of the name “Narayana”. The meaning of the name Narayana can be derived by using either tat purusha samasam or bahu brihi samasam. The meaning changes according to the samasam used but the meaning derived by using either of the samasam can only apply to Lord Narayana. In Bahubrihi samasam, the meaning changes to the one who has His ayanam in the narams (The individual in the collective). The importance is neither given to “naram” or “ayanam” in Bahubrihi but to omnipresence. Using Tat Purusha samasam one derives the meaning that He is the one in whom the narams or the jeevatmas rest (The collective in The individual). Once a person realises that Lord Narayana is their antaryami and at the same time they also understand that they are the sareeram of Lord Narayana, then one perceives correctly unity in diversity.

 All differences vanish. This vanishing point is the middle of the book where the individual blends into the collective and vice versa. The factual reality we perceive every day is but a dream of one who has not realised that they the individual is part of the collective and vice versa. We live inside a bubble that artificially segregates us the individual from the collective population. The reality that deals with the entire population is eventually a dream painted with the brushstroke of ego, lies and fantasies of an entire population. Neither the individual nor the collective population realises that the “atman” is inside the individual making the collective population, a part of the individual and that the individual is also part of the collective population because the individual is really a part of the “atman”. True harmony is achieved when the boundaries of false ego melt and the individual learns not to discriminate from the collective and vice versa. This concept is beautifully represented by the cover image. The Image shows a tree reflected in the water with the words “I Am Me”. If one were to rotate the image by 180 degrees such that the reflected tree is on top, one would now read the title as “I Am We”.

 This time when I read the book, I decided to start with the “fantasy” side. I chose to start with “The Hangman” because my mom had just finished reading it and wished to discuss it with me. This story on page 102 on the fantasy side of the book, starts with the narrator finding himself in the presence of death. He is in the realm between the living and the dead and is given a chance to return to the realm of the living if he can successfully play the game of “hangman”. The narrator finds himself between two walls; one behind him and the other in front of him while on either side of the narrator, he is enveloped by dark, open space. The wall behind the narrator represents the world of the living which he had just left behind and the wall facing him represents the possibility of returning to the world of the living and is the proverbial carrot dangling before him, the main motivation to answer correctly. The narrator’s fears are personified as death. The narrator finds himself enveloped on either side by the shapeless, wide-open dark space representing the narrator’s anxiety arising from the fear of the unknown world, in this case, his ignorance about life after death. 

 Though the atmosphere created by Ram is tense and foreboding, the humorous conversation between the narrator and death helps to lighten the mood. The story proceeds with the narrator’s struggle to guess the ten letters in the word correctly. The answer is the highlight and contains the message for us to take away. Ram has used his imagination to forge together the philosophies of the West and the East. In his use of symbolism, we find the hints of Western Philosophies which end with the messages from the East which are an echo of the ancient Upanishads. The conclusion of this story resonates with the message from the “antaryami brahmanam” of the Upanishad. The Universe as we see it, with the array of creatures, planets, galaxies, etc, cannot exist without the support of God; the “Individual” we must strive to realise. The Universe cannot function independently of Him; it is forever dependent on Him. To emphasise this ceaseless reliance on Him, the Universe is viewed as His body. The body in the above sense doesn’t refer to the type of body we are familiar with which has eyes, nose, limbs, etc, but, the body here refers to that which is under the control of God. The reference made to God as the Soul and the Universe, encompassing the matter along with the hosts of souls as the body is but, an analogy. We know that our body is supported by the soul within. The moment the soul leaves the body, it is unable to function, falls down and is reduced to a corpse. Our body depends on our soul. It cannot exist independently of our soul. In this same manner, the Universe made up of souls and matter is incapable of functioning independently of God. In this sense, He is the Individual within all of us. Once, He the individual is realised, the individual soul learns to put the “collective” before his own selfish desires. All the individual souls are identical to each other. As a result of this equality arising from their similarity, there is no room for discrimination based on caste, colour, creed, gender, etc. This is the message conveyed by this story which concludes when the narrator sees that his face is also the face of death.

Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 12

 

Continued From: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 11

As he himself was an usurper who had become the Sultan after killing his uncle, he started suspecting that others may make an attempt on his life too. He understood the power of money since he had used wealth to attain his goal. He protected himself by confiscating the wealth of his nobles to prevent any uprisings against him. According to both Barani and Firishta, he issued orders that marriage alliances between his nobles shall not take place without his approval. He started confiscating property of both Muslims and Hindus alike. He often stated that “religion had no connection with the civil government , but was only the business , or rather amusement of private life; the will of a wise prince was better than the variable opinions of bodies of men”. Soon his personal treasury overflowed with the money of his nobles and the common people. He overtaxed his people that they were reduced to a deplorable state.  Fearing that his nobles may conspire against him over a glass of wine, he banned alcohol from the kingdom.

According to Firishta , in the year 1303 Allaudin Khilji sent a huge force under the command of his favourite slave Malik Kafur to once again plunder the Deccan Kingdoms of India. At that time when the army was absent from Delhi, the Mughals retaliated against Delhi. Allaudin scrambled to collect army to ward of the invasion. After a lengthy struggle he managed to make them retreat from Delhi. Fearing a third invasion from the Mughals, he frantically started to increase his military power. He had increased his forces so greatly that he realised that he would become bankrupt in six years. He needed his army to plunder Hindu Kingdoms and yet paying their salary would deplete his treasury. He decided to reduce the pay of his army , but in order to prevent a revolt, he lowered the price of every commodity.

In the year 1310, Allaudin once again sent an army under Malik Kafur to plunder Dwara Samudram and the Malabar Coast. It was during this invasion that the Srirangam temple was plundered. The loot from the first invasion paled next to that of the second invasion. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with 312 elephants, 20,000 horses, 3,580,800 Kg of gold, several hundred kilograms of precious gems. Silver is not listed as one of the plundered items because during the time of the invasion, the people of South India were very wealthy and it is said that even their dinner plates and utensils were made of gold!

Only the citizens of Devagiri and Lasur had felt the evil effects of the first invasion. The second invasion terrorized the entire Deccan .The sultan had in his army some soldiers who were of Mughal origin. All of a sudden he started mistrusting these soldiers and discharged every one of them from his army. He not only dismissed them , but fearing an uprising had 15,000 Mughal soldiers who were all Muslims put to death. One day the streets of Delhi were filled with the bodies of these 15,000 soldiers and the women and children of these soldiers were enslaved.

He pillaged and plundered all of North India and faced problems in maintaining a large army. In order to maintain his soldiers, he started levying heavy taxes on all Hindus who lived in his kingdom. The tax rate was 50% for Hindus and if they were farmers or merchants, they had to give 50% of the goods produced to the tax collector on top of the 50% tax they paid. He arranged to drag the women and children of anyone who was unable to pay the taxes and sold them as slaves in the market. Often, these women and children were shipped outside of India to countries like Oman as slaves. The Hindu farmers and merchants lost everything they owned and were left with the agonizing screams of their wives and children ringing constantly in their ears.  This heavy taxation too eventually stopped generating revenue as farmers stopped farming their lands and the country faced a severe famine.

Allaudin Khalji rule was doted with many internal revolts. Notable amongst these revolts was the revolt in Gujarat started by those who had recently converted to Islam. To quell the revolt, Allaudin Khalji ordered all those people who had recently converted to Islam to be slaughtered outside his palace. It is reported that around 30,000 people were slaughtered each day outside his palace and the streets of Delhi were covered with blood. He gave orders to his officers to show utmost cruelty towards his people and to plunder them to such an extent that they should be left with nothing. He impoverished his people so that they would lack the funds to start any revolts.

Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 11

 

Continued From: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 10

After the raid on Gujarat, the army returned to Delhi. Enroute to Delhi, Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan camped at a place to examine the loot. They scrutinized the spoils in the possession of the soldiers. They inflicted various punishments and penalties on the soldires forcing them to part with everything in their possession. Unable to endure the punishments, the soldiers revolted. They killed the brother of Nusrat Khan. Allaudin quickly sent relief and quelled the revolt. As soon as the troops reached Delhi, the women and children of the mutineers were seized by the government. The women were dishonoured on the streets of Delhi and they were forced to witness their children being cut into pieces! For weeks the streets of Delhi was drowned by the cry of these innocent women and children!

 By this time Allaudin had come to suspect even his brothers Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan. A conspirator can never live in peace because he is constantly worried about a plot being woven around him. Allaudin  heaved a sigh of relief when his brother Zafar Khan fell fighting the Mughals.  According to both Barani and Firishta, Allaudin terrorized the Mughals and captured their women and children to be sold as slaves in the market. With one brother down, Allaudin kept a close watch on his other brother. Later, when Ulugh Khan’s son made an attempt on Allaudin’s life, the Sultan used it as an excuse to murder his brother Ulugh Khan as well. With the murder of his brother, Allaudin kicked the ladder he had used to ascend the throne of Delhi!     

                                                                                                               

The nobles were unaware that the gifts bestowed on them by Allaudin to cover up the murder of Jalal-ud-din was only temporary.They did not realise that by accepting bribes from Allaudin the nobles had signed their own death warrants. In the second year of the reign, Allaudin demanded the amount he had given to the nobility and the common people.  He made many changes to the offices held by the nobles in his assembly. He murdered all those nobles of Jalal-ud-din who had accepted bribes from Allaudin during his ascension.

Continued On: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 12

Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 10

 

Continued From: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 9

 

Allaudin granted the title of Ulugh Khan on his brother Almas Beg and the title of Zafar Khan on his other brother. He conferred upon his general Malik Nusrat Jalesari the title “Nusrat Khan”. Allaudin started for Delhi on his elephant followed by a band of Amirs and Maliks whom he had won over with bribes. When they arrived at Baran in the present day state of Rajasthan, Nusrat Khan recruited the people of Baran into military service. Allaudin deputed Zafar Khan to intercept the Maliks and Amirs of the late Sultan who had been deputed to stop the advance of Allaudin’s march. Zafar Khan was able to buy the allegiance of the late Sultan’s Maliks and Amirs who now joined Allaudin at Baran. Hearing of the defection of the nobles, the late Sultan’s wife sent an urgent message to the Sultan’s son who was at Multan to come to their aid in Delhi, but the Sultan’s son refused to come to her aid. Zia-Ud -Din Barani states that , ‘Alauddin entered into the city with a most wonderful retinue and a countless multitude, and took his seat on the throne of Delhi in the Daulat Khanah, after which he repaired to the Koshak i la’l, (crimson palace) and made that the royal residence.’[ Note: The crimson palace is the Red Fort at Delhi. How many red coloured palaces are there in Delhi? The Red Fort has been the royal residence of Delhi Sultans and features on the biography of these Sultans, Ghazni, Balban and so on; this is proof that the red fort was not constructed by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. The Mughal Emperor may have renovated the red fort , but the fort itself had existed in Delhi even before the time of Prithviraj Chauhan.]

He deputed his brothers to Multan to take care of the late Sultan’s sons. At the end of a seige, the avaricious troops of Multan betrayed their princes and surrendered Multan to the Khilji brothers. At the order of Allaudin Khilji, the two princes were tortured first and then assasinated while the female family members of the late Sultan including his young wife were taken into the harem (zenana) of Allauding Khilji. What can one expect from such a despot who readily tortured and  murdered his kins in cold blood? Alas, everyone turned a blind eye as they were blinded by the glitter from the gold and silver bestowed on them by the vile Sultan!

During this time, the Mughals raided the territories of Multan and Punjab. Taking advantage of the change in the Delhi administration, the Mughals raided Multan and Punjab with a troop of 100,000 soldiers. The Sultan’s brother Zafar Khan was successful in pushing back the Mughals. At the same time, Allaudin deputed Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to raid Gujarat. The Vaghela King Karan Rai was no match for the invading army. He tried to effect an escape to the nearby Yadava Kingdom , but his wife Kamala Devi fell into the hands of the invaders. Karan Rai escaped to Devagiri with his daughter Dewal Devi. Kamala Devi was sent as a gift to Delhi and Allaudin took her into his harem. Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan meanwhile ruthlessly sacked Gujarat. They fell upon Somnath Temple in Gujarat and once again the temple was sacked by the foreign army. This was a famous temple and the linga worshipped in the temple was one of the twelve jyotirlingas of India. According to Barani, the sacred linga was taken to Delhi where it was shattered and scattered upon the streets of Delhi to be trampled by the masses. Such was the fanatism displayed by Allaudin’s army! The invaders also fell upon the port city Khambat and it was here that they saw a fetching lad called “Hazar Dinari”. A slave trader had in his charge a fetching young lad. The young man had such fine features that the slave trader had purchased him from Baghdad and had paid one thousand dinars for him; hence the name “Hazar Dinari” given to the lad. This young man too fell into the hands of Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan. Hazar Dinari was presented to Allaudin. The young man was so handsome, that Allaudin who by that time was already married to Jallaudin’s daughter, Jhatyapali, Kamala Devi and many more, became infatuated with Hazar Dinari. The Sultan named Hazar Dinari as Malik Kafur who stole the Sultan’s heart. Allaudin was so infatuated with Malik Kafur that the later controlled him to a great extent.

Continued On: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 11

Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 9

 

Continued From: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 8

 

It was in the year 1296, that Ali plundered Devagiri without informing his father-in-law/uncle. The Sultan however, learnt of Ali's success and proceeded towards Gwalior from Delhi to confiscate the loot in person. Learning of the Sultan’s move, Ali proceeded directly to Kara in Uttar Pradesh without stopping at Gwalior and the Sultan was forced to return empty-handed to Delhi. Ali and his brother Almas carefully planned their next move. They knew that it would be a folly to openly attack the Sultan. Almas Beg used his persuasive powers to convince the Sultan that Ali only meant well and was a loyal servant of the Sultan. Almas informed the Sultan that Ali was afraid of meeting the Sultan in person as he had raided Devagiri without obtaining permission from the Sultan. He persuaded the Sultan to propose his peaceful intentions by going to Ali instead. The Sultan pleased with the success of Ali and lured by the loot, assured Almas that he could never be upset with Ali. Almas who was also Ali's co-conspirator thus convinced the Sultan to meet Ali at Khara. (See map )

 

Jalal-ud-din  fell into the trap laid by Almas Beg and Ali.  He foolishly agreed to meet Ali with just a few of his followers and that too unarmoured. Jalal-ud-din  traveled down the Ganges to meet Ali, but to his shock, as soon as he disembarked from his boat, Ali's soldiers fell upon him and severed his head in cold blood! Confusion ensued amongst the Sultan’s followers as they were slaughtered to death by their host. The Sultan’s severed head was on display as proof of Ali’s victory over the Sultan. The historian Zia-Ud -Din Barani says in his book Tarik-I-Firuz-Shahi that for the purpose of glossing over the murder of Jalal-Ud-Din, an act condemned by men and God, Ali threw open the door of liberality and munificence. (A translation of Tarrik-I-Firuz-Shahi by A.R.Fuller). Zia-Ud -Din Barani was a contemporary of Ali and his uncle was later appointed as the Kotwal of Delhi by the Usurper. Those whose silence could be bought was purchased with the loot from Devagiri and those who opposed were put to death. In this manner, the gruesome murder of Sultan Jalal-ud-din  was covered up.

 

Ali purchased the allegiance of Jalal-ud-din's nobles and boldly marched to Delhi where he easily took over the throne by bribing the nobles and proclaimed himself as Allaudin Khilji, the second sultan of the Khilji Dynasty. He donated large amounts of gold to the common people and ascended the throne of Delhi amidst great pomp and celebration. The people were only too happy to get gifts from the new Sultan and no one grieved for Jalal-ud-din.Thus was born Allaudin Khilji, a cruel despot!

 

Continued On: The Forgotten Empires Of India: Foreign Invasion of Medieval India - Part 10